The Iron Age II (980—530 BC*) in the southern Levant is characterized by major political changes: in its beginning new kingdoms emerged – the kingdoms of Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Edom, and the Philistine and Phoenician cities. At its end, the region came under imperial occupation, which will continue until the Modern Era.
The period is the first in the region’s history for which abundant historical sources exist: the books of Samuel—Kings and some of the Prophets refer to the period, and were possibly written during it. Other historical sources, such as royal inscriptions and administrative documents, were found in the southern Levant, in Egypt, and in the Assyrian Kingdom.
The sub-division of the period and its dating are disagreed upon: the high chronology method begins the period at 1000 BC, while the low chronology at the last third of the 10th century. Yet it can be divided into 4 sub-periods:
The Iron Age IIa (980—830 BC) begins after the destruction of several cities in Canaan, among them Megiddo and Shiloh, and is characterised by material-cultural changes. The extensive rural settlement in the central hill country of the Iron Age I diminished, and cities, containing unique monumental architecture, like Mizpah and Samaria, emerged. Some inscriptions have been discovered, predominantly in the north of Israel, as well as stamp impressions in Jerusalem, and new settlements and forts in the Negev, which are associated with extensive activity in the wadi-Feynan mines.
While no historical sources have yet been associated with the period, the “United Monarchy” described in the biblical Samuel and Kings books is ascribed to it. The Monarchy’s existence is not explicit in the archaeological record and is disputed among scholars. The continuation of the biblical description of two kingdoms, Israel and Judah, is more evident in the archaeology, and corresponds to the described strength of the Kingdom of Israel, and its warring against the Kingdom of Aram, and royal and public monumental buildings have been discovered in its cities. Judah’s status at the time is disputed, as some scholars contend it became a significant kingdom only in the 9th century BC, and under Israel’s shadow. At the same time, the Phoenician kingdoms developed a flourishing trade network, extending over the Mediterranean Sea. Shishaq’s campaign, known from the Karnak Inscription and the Book of Kings is dated to the period, yet no archaeological evidence of it has been found, save a stele by Shishaq from Megiddo.
The Iron Age IIb (830—700 BC) began after the destruction of Gath, possibly by the kingdom of Aram, after which material-cultural changes are evident. It is considered a period of flourishing, especially in the kingdom of Israel, and is characterised by a significant increase in population and a renewal of the rural settlement. Significant social stratification, monumental building, international trade, use of writing, and administrative developments are evident in the Israelite Kingdom’s cities, which together with the historical sources tell of its becoming a significant regional power, competing with strong neighbouring kingdoms like Aram.
In the last third of the 8th century BC, the Assyrian empire gradually conquered the kingdom of Israel, killed and deported much of its population, and turned the region into Assyrian provinces. From this period until the end of the Iron Age the kingdom’s former regions became demographically and economically scant.
Meanwhile, the kingdoms of Tyre and Judah and the Philistine cities became Assyrian vassal states and continued to prosper: cities grew, monumental buildings were constructed, and new settlements and forts were established. From the end of the period, evidence has been found for the use of writing and administration. Trade developed, and the Phoenicians expanded their international connections.
Yet the kingdoms’ uprisings resulted in Assyrian campaigns to the region, inflicting heavy destruction. The last one, Sennacherib’s in 701 BC, brought the destruction of the Shephelah region’s cities, their transfer from the sovereignty of the kingdom of Judah to Ekron, demographic decrease, economic ruin, and the end of the period.
The Iron Age IIc (700—586 BC) represents the Assyrian empire’s sovereignty over the southern Levant, under which its northern parts remained negligible Assyrian provinces, while in its south the vassal kingdoms continued to blossom: in Judah, cities grew, monumental buildings were constructed, and the Shephelah region was partially rehabilitated. New settlements were established in new regions, among them agricultural settlements, and forts – in which evidence for the use of writing and administration, and military presence was discovered. Tel-Hadid became an Assyrian administrative centre, and increased settlement was identified around it, in which evidence for the settlement of exiles was found. The material culture indicates developed international trade, as the Phoenician kingdoms continued to expand their relations and established trade colonies on foreign shores. Cities, like Ashkelon and Ekron, grew and blossomed in Philistia as well, and in the latter a large olive oil industry was established. Some scholars contend that the writing of parts of the bible began during this period.
At the end of the period, the Assyrian empire weakened, and the Egyptian kingdom managed to conquer parts of the southern Levant. Yet shortly after, the Babylonian empire violently conquered the region, instating destruction, death, and deportation: in 604 BC it destroyed the Philistine cities, and in 586 Judah, and brought the end of the period.
The Iron Age IId (586—530 BC) represents the Babylonian empire’s rule of the region. Archaeological findings from the period are meagre, and their interpretation is disputed. Some scholars see the period as a time of economic and demographic decline and ruin resulting from the Babylonian occupation. Others contend the Babylonian destruction centred on the cities, and that only the social elite was exiled, and most of the population and the rural regions were less harmed and managed to recover.
Parts of the bible are attributed to this period. Its end and the end of the Iron Age came with the conquest of the region by the Persian empire, and the onset of the Persian Period.
*Dates are according to Amihai Mazar’s method.
Sources
Mazar, A. (Accessed on 29 October 2023). The Iron Age 1150—586 BCE. Israeli Institute of Archaeology. https://www.israeliarchaeology.org/%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%AA/the-iron-age/?lang=en
Mazar, A. (2019). The Iron Age I. In Faust, A., & Katz H. (Eds.). Archaeology of the land of Israel: From the Neolithic to Alexander the Great (vol. 2) (pp. 109—196). Lamda – The Open University.
Faust, A. (2019). The Iron Age II. In Faust, A., & Katz H. (Eds.). Archaeology of the land of Israel: From the Neolithic to Alexander the Great (vol. 2) (pp. 197—321). Lamda – The Open University.