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Jerusalem is one of the oldest and most important cities in the world, with a history that spans over 3,000 years. The city is located in the Judean Hills of Israel, and has been inhabited by a number of different civilizations throughout its history.

Main findings from biblical times are the

Gihon spring,

Siloam Pool,

Siloam inscription,

walls from the days of the First Temple

ivories from the days of the First Temple

plates of the blessing of the priests

Ketef Hinnom

GivatI parking lot

GivatI parking lot

First Temple Ritual Practices Structure

Jerusalem is perhaps best known as a religious center, and is considered sacred by three of the world's major monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The city is home to many important religious sites, including the Western Wall (also known as the Wailing Wall), the Dome of the Rock, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

The city was founded in the 4th millennium BCE, and was initially a small settlement known as Jebus. It was conquered by King David in the 10th century BCE, and was subsequently made the capital of the Israelite kingdom. Under the reign of King Solomon, the city was expanded and a grand temple was built.

Jerusalem was later destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, and many of its inhabitants were taken into captivity. The city was rebuilt by the Jews following their return from exile, and the Second Temple was constructed in the 5th century BCE.

In the 1st century CE, Jerusalem was occupied by the Romans, who destroyed the Second Temple in 70 CE following a Jewish uprising. The city subsequently became an important center of early Christianity, and was also conquered by the Islamic armies in the 7th century CE.

Jerusalem has been the site of numerous conflicts throughout history, and has been conquered and ruled by various empires and kingdoms, including the Crusaders, the Ottoman Empire, and the British. Today, the city remains an important center of religion, culture, and history, and continues to be a source of contention in the ongoing Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

3D - 1st temple period

Tel Shiloh (in Arabic: Khirbet Seilun) is an archaeological site from the Bronza and Iron Ages identified with the city of Shiloh, mentioned in the Bible as the site of the Tabernacle in the period of the Judges (for example: Joshua 18:1; 1 Samuel 1:9). The tel covers an area of roughly 3 hectares. The location of Shiloh was identified already in the 14^th century CE by traveler and geographer Rabbi Ishtori Haparchi. This identification proposal was accepted by modern scholars due to the preservation of the name and the site’s location fitting ancient sources. Shiloh is unique among biblical sites in that a description of its location appears in the Bible (Judges 21:19). Many researchers have attempted to identify the location of the Tabernacle in places all over the tel, but there is still no consensus on the matter.

History of the Site’s Research

Many expeditions excavated Shiloh over the years:

• In 1922 a few small soundings were conducted by a group of Danish researchers led by archaeologist Aage Schmidt.
• In the years 1926-1927, 1929 and 1932 excavations were conducted by an expedition from the National Museum of Copenhagen, led by Danish archaeologist Hans Kjaer and overseen by American archaeologist William Albright. Kjaer passed away prior to publishing a full report.
• In 1963 Danish archaeologists Svend Holmes-Nielsen and Marie-Louise Buhl conducted a small sounding in preparation for the publication of the full report of Kjaer’s expedition, but much of the data of that season was lost on the way to Copenhagen. The first report of the two expeditions was published in 1969.
• In the years 1981-1984 the site was excavated by an expedition from Bar-Ilan University led by Israel Finkelstein. At the same time Zeev Yeivin conducted excavations in the northern area of the tel out of hopes of finding the site of the Tabernacle.
• In the years 2010-2018 the site was excavated on behalf of the Staff Officer of Archaeology of the Civil Administration for Judea and Samaria.
• Since 2017 the site is being excavated by American archaeologist Scott Stripling.

The Site in the Bronze Age

The site was first settled in very limited capacity during the Middle Bronze IIB period (1750-1650 BCE). During the Middle Bronze III period (1650/1600-1550 BCE) a wall was built around the settlement, but it likely wasn’t intended for defensive purposes. A few storage facilities were constructed adjacent to the wall, and held various vessels, including many storage jars. Also found in these facilities were various objects that testify to the existence of a cultic site at Shiloh already during that period. The findings include: Cultic stands, votive bowls and a vessel in the shape of an ox. Other findings include stone and bone vessels. During the Late Bronze Age (1550-1200 BCE) the settlement at the site was likely discontinued and the site remained only as a cultic center, reflected in a number of favissae (cultic storage pits). Other findings from that period include cooking pots and a scarab. The site was abandoned during the Late Bronze IIA period (1400-1300 BCE).

The Site in the Iron Age

The site was resettled in the Iron I period for a short time (late 12^th-first half of the 11^th century BCE) by the Israelites, reflected by, among other things, several pillared houses found at the site. During that period there was a cultic center active at the site, identified with the Tabernacle, but its location, as mentioned above, is disputed. The site’s town planning shows that the settlement was not merely a simply village with a cultic center, but the entire settled area was considered part of a larger cultic compound which served the denizens of the region (if not also people who came from farther away). Findings from this period include: Flint sickles, a seal with the image of a goat and a vessel handle imprinted with a lion seal. Circa the end of the Iron I period the site was destroyed in a great conflagration. The site was resettled in limited capacity circa the end of the Iron II period (8^th-7^th centuries BCE) and was slowly abandoned due to, among other reasons, the Assyrian conquest. A ceramic pomegranate found at the site is dated to the Iron Age.

The Site in Later Periods

Only a few Persian and Early Hellenistic pottery sherds were found at the site, as well as a few Ptolemaic and Seleucid coins, and so it seems that the site wasn’t settled during those periods. The site was probably only resettled during the Roman period.

The Location of the Tabernacle

As mentioned, the exact location of the Tabernacle (the Iron I cultic center) at Tel Shiloh is disputed. Several different suggestions were raised over the years: (1) A tradition from the Medieval period which was accepted by some modern researchers, such as Chaim Gevaryahu, states that the Tabernacle was located at the nearby site of  Jami’ al-Yatim. However, excavations at the site have revealed that remnants there are to be dated no earlier than the 7^th-8^th centuries CE. (2) The Danish expedition suggested that the location of the Tabernacle was at the site of the Byzantine church at the tel, but there, too, there still haven’t been found more antiquated remnants. (3) Charles Wilson and other researchers after him suggested identifying the site of the Tabernacle with the northern segment of the tel. (4) Israel Finkelstein thought that the Tabernacle was located in the center of the tel, where he found a few Late Bronze favissae. In his view, the Iron Age cultic center replaced the Bronze Age one. (5) Yosef Garfinkel and a few other researchers suggested identifying the cultic center near the city gate.

Bibliography

I. Finkelstein and others, Shiloh: The Archaeology of a Biblical Site, Tel Aviv 1993.

K. W. Larsen, ‘The Seleucid and Hasmonean Coins of Shiloh:What They Do and Do Not Tell Us about the Occupation of Second Century BCE Shiloh’, Stone-Campbell Journal Conference, April 5-6, 2019.

R. Levitan-Ben Aryeh, ‘New Excavations in the Northern Plateau at Tel Shiloh’, in: A. Meron and others (eds.), Sefer Shiloh, Beit El 2016, pp. 208-223 [Hebrew].

T. Lopez and others, ‘A Ceramic Pomegranate from Shiloh’, Judea and Samaria Research Studies 28 (2019), pp. *37-*56.

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Tel Gezer is a large mound, lying in the western foothills of the Judean Mountains at a height of 250 m. above sea level. Gezer is adjacent to the modern village of Karmei Yosef and covers an area of 130 dunams. The site controls the junction of the Via Maris (which stretched from Egypt to Mesopotamia) with the route from the coast to Jerusalem. Gezer rose to fame partly thanks to its 10th-century BCE monumental gate, which some scholars believe was built by King Solomon. A recent alternative hypothesis linked the construction of the gate with the Kingdom of Gath.

Early research
The site (Arabic: Tell Jezar) was identified with biblical Gezer in 1871 by the French archaeologist Charles Clermont-Ganneau, who discovered in 1873 the "Boundary of Gezer" inscriptions. These inscriptions mention the name of the city, and confirm Clermont-Ganneau's identification. In the 1900s the site was excavated under the supervision of R.A.S. Macalister of the Palestine Exploration Fund. He excavated long north-south trenches down to the bedrock, often to a depth of 13 meters, which covered two-thirds of the surface of the mound. This irregular excavation method made later study at the site difficult.

Recent research
In 1964 a new expedition of the Hebrew Union College and the Semitic Museum at Harvard (today Harvard Museum of the Ancient Near East) began excavations at the site for 10 years. William Dever led the expedition in 1966. In 2010 another excavation was conducted by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority and the New Orleans Baptist Seminary of Theology. Tzika Tzuk, one of the supervisors, came to the conclusion that the large water system was constructed in the Middle Bronze Age, making it the oldest known in the country.

The water system

References to Gezer from the time of Egyptian rule on Canaan (15th-13th centuries BCE)
The importance of Gezer in different periods can be studied through its mentions in many biblical and historical sources. The city is first mentioned in the list of cities captured by Pharaoh Thutmose III in his campaign in Canaan in 1468 BCE. Among the El-Amarna letters of the 14th century BCE, nine are of correspondences of the rulers of Gezer with the Egyptian Pharaohs Amenhotep III and his son Akhenaten. Gezer is also mentioned in the Merneptah Stele (known as the "Israel Stele") from c. 1220 BCE, as a city conquered in his campaign to Canaan. Dever claims that evidence of that destruction is seen at the site.

Biblical and Hasmonean sources
In the biblical sources Gezer is mentioned in the narrative of Joshua's conquest (Joshua 10) and later as a city in the territory of the Tribe of Ephraim (Joshua 16:3). King David in his war against his Philistines is said to have pushed them to the border of Gezer (II Samuel 5:25), his son Solomon is said to have built Gezer after receiving it from his bride's wife, identified with Pharaoh Siamun who ruled in c. 978-969 BCE (1 Kings 10:14-17). Gezer is mentioned as one of the most important cities constructed by Solomon (1 Kings 9:15-17). The Book of Maccabees states that Gezer was fortified and housed granaries and food storage in the 2nd century BCE (1 Maccabees 16:18-31, 35; 10:32-38). In historical sources, Gezer is said to have been conquered and fortified in the days of Judas Maccabeus and Simon Thassi during the Hasmonean period (2nd-1st centuries BCE).

Archaeological findings: The beginning of Canaanite Gezer
The strategic location of the site and its access to water sources attracted its residents. The earliest settlement layer of the site is from the Chalcolithic period (between 3600-3300 BCE). In the Middle Bronze period, Gezer became a large city, with extensive trade relations with Egypt and Mesopotamia. A large Canaanite temple with monumental columns was exposed, dating to the Middle Bronze III (1650-1550 BCE). Dever hypothesized that it was used in forming alliances with other political powers. Across the site many imported ware from Cyprus, Syria, and Egypt were found, indicating an increase in international trade during that period. At the end of the Middle Bronze period, a massive fortification system and water system were set. At the beginning of the Late Bronze Age period (around the year 1457 BCE) Gezer was destroyed, probably by Thutmose III, and continued to exist as a city-state under the rule of Egypt, until its withdrawal from Canaan in the 12th century BCE.

Gezer in the Iron Age - A city of King Solomon?
In the Iron Age I period (12th-10th centuries BCE) there is evidence of the continuation of the Canaanite settlement, in addition to a short period of Philistine presence between c. 1175-1050 BCE. In the beginning of the Iron Age IIa period (c. mid-10th century BCE), the site experienced violent destruction and on top of its ruins, a new settlement was established, including a monumental gate.

While Macalister claimed this gate is from the Hasmonean period, Israeli archaeologist Yigael Yadin claimed it was established by King Solomon. In 1 Kings 9:16-17 it is said that the Egyptian Pharaoh burnt Gezer and gave it to Solomon, his son-in-law, who erected massive fortifications and a city gate. Yadin based his claim on the similarity with the gates at Hazor and Megiddo, which were also linked to Solomon. Dever, who renewed the excavations, supported Yadin's hypothesis.

With the development of the archaeological research in recent years, scholars have claimed that in the Iron Age I period Gezer was under the control of the Philistine kingdom of Ekron (hence the evidence of a Philistine settlement). Accompanying these developments is a new hypothesis: Gezer's destruction and reconstruction, including the gate, should be attributed not to King Solomon but to the Kingdom of Gath. Either way, among the most important finds in the country is the "Gezer Calendar", which deals with agriculture and is one of the earliest examples of Ancient Hebrew script.

The gate:

Gezer in the monarchic period and under the rule of Assyria and Babylons (10th-6th centuries BCE)
Gezer was destroyed during the campaign of Shishak (identified with Sheshonq I) in c. 925 BCE. The question about the continuity of the settlement after that destruction was debated. Macalister claimed that Gezer was abandoned until the 5th century BCE, while Dever claimed that it continued until the Babylonian destruction in 586 BCE. The Assyrian tablets from the campaign of Tiglath-Pileser III in the southern Levant show, according to Dever, the conquest of Gezer in 733 BCE. An inscription from Nimurd even mentioned the name "Gazaru," meaning "our Gezer." According to Israeli archaeologist Roni Reich, after the Assyrian destruction of Gezer, it was re-established as an Assyrian administrative center. After the Babylonian conquest at the end of the 6th century BCE, Ephraim Stern identified evidence of the Persian period at the site, but without a considerable settlement. Later, it would seem that Gezer was uninhabited until the Hellenistic-Hasmonean period.

Gezer from the Classical periods until today
The Book of Maccabees describes Gezer as an administrative center with a fortress of the Hasmonean kings. Roni Reich has explored Macalister's findings and identified evidence that after the year 142 BCE the site was inhabited by Jewish residents, apparently under the rule of Simeon. However, no Hasmonean fortress was identified

During the Roman period, there was a sparse settlement at Gezer, which probably served as an agricultural estate, whose demarcation inscriptions mark its limits (dated to c. 100 CE). Several Byzantine (4th-7th centuries CE) graves were also excavated. In 1177 CE an important battle took place at the site, between Baldwin IV, the Crusader king, and Salah a-Din, which ended in the victory of the former. Clermont-Ganneau identified the site with Crusader Montgisard, whose remains were not discovered at the site. Today the site is a park. In 2022 it suffered from a wildfire, but most of the archaeological remains were not damaged.

Sources:

דיוור, ג. ויליאם. 1998. גזר: צומת דרכים בארץ ישראל הקדומה. הוצאת הקיבוץ המאוחד. תל אביב.

דיוור, ג. ויליאם. 1970. גזר- עיר קמה לתחייה. קדמוניות: כתב עת לעתיקות ארץ ישראל וארצות המקרא. כרך 2 (10): עמ' 57-62.

קוך, ע. 'המערך המדיני בשפלת יהודה בתקופת הברזל א-בI (1150-800 לפסה"נ), קתדרה 143 (2012), עמ' 45-64

Steven Ortiz and Samuel Wolff. 2012. Guarding the Border to Jerusalem: The Iron Age City of Gezer. Near Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 75, No. 1. pp. 4-19.

Biblical hiking Map

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Hazor is one of the largest and most important cities in ancient Israel. It is identified with Tell el-Qedah, known today as "Tel Hazor". The site is located in the southern Hula Valley, west of Kibbutz Ayelet HaShahar. Hazor sits at a strategic crossroads that dominates the road leading from Egypt to Mesopotamia. From the 17th century BCE, Hazor was a political-economic center in the land of Canaan, and in the Late Bronze Age, Hazor was the largest of the royal cities in the country. In the book of Joshua, it is written that Canaanite Hazor was conquered by the Israelites under the leadership of Joshua, and its size and power are echoed in its description as "the head of all these kingdoms" (chapter 13:11). The archaeological showed that in the 10th-9th centuries BCE, Hazor was rebuilt and became a central city in the northern kingdom of Israel. The city was razed by Tiglath Pileser III in 734 BCE. After this destruction, a few remains of a settlement from the Persian period and then the Mamluk period were found on the site. Many impressive findings were uncovered on the site, including monumental royal palaces, temples, a complex of tombstones, and cuneiform tablets. Tel Hazor is one of the largest mounds in Israel and was declared a world heritage site in 2005.

The history of the excavation
Tell el-Qedah was excavated for the first time in 1928 by the British professor John Gerstang who proposed the identification of the site with the biblical Hazor. Between the years 1955-1958, the site was excavated by Prof. Yigal Yadin on behalf of the Hebrew University. Since 1990 Prof. Amnon Ben-Tor has been excavating in Hazor on behalf of the Hebrew University and the Complutense University of Madrid, under the auspices of the Israel Exploration Society. Since 1995, the Salz Foundation in New York participates in the dig and therefore it is called "The Selz Foundation Hazor Excavations in Memory of Yigal Yadin". Between the years 2006-2014, the late Dr. Sharon Zuckerman from the Hebrew University joined the excavations, and in 2015, Dr. Shlomit Bacher was added.

History of Canaanite Hazor
The city of Hazor was founded at the end of the 3rd millennium BCE and became a central Canaanite city in the transition between the Middle Bronze Age 2A and 2B (17th century BCE). The city reached its peak with the establishment of the lower city, in addition to the Acropolis, and its area spread over about 840 dunams divided between the upper city (about 140 dunams) and the lower city. The researchers support hypotheses on the strategic importance of Hazor in the Bronze Age by comparing its size to other mounds of the time and following the biblical references: "And Joshua sat at the hill and captured Hazor, and the queen, he struck with the sword: for Hazor was before her, see all these kingdoms" (Joshua 11:10), "And Yahweh was pleased, by the hand of Yabin, the king of Canaan, who reigned, in the court" (Judges 4:2). Hazor is also mentioned in important non-biblical archives such as the pharaonic "Writings of the Marat" from the 19th century BCE. Hazor is mentioned in the archives of the kingdom of Mari and it appears frequently in the Al-Amarna archive as, among other things, sending gifts from the king of Egypt to the king of Hazor (who is the only city in Canaan mentioned as "king" both in biblical sources and outside of them).

Archaeological remains of Canaanite Hazor
In the excavations, impressive complexes from the Middle Bronze Age were found, among them a complex of gravestones (indicating worship under the dome of the sky), a large royal palace, a temple, and a complex of warehouses for agricultural produce. The tomb complex and some of the warehouses fell out of use in the Late Bronze Age. Yadin hypothesized that the city of Hazor was destroyed at the end of the Middle Bronze Age (around 1500 BCE) and was rebuilt in the Late Bronze Age, a hypothesis opposed by Ben-Tor, who argued for a quiet transition while restructuring the upper city without destruction. Beyond the impressive architectural findings, a large amount of figurines, statues (including Egyptian statues), weapons, and many cuneiform tablets (which make up about a fifth of the cuneiform tablets found in the country). Most of the tablets are administrative and financial documents from the Canaanite period and the researchers hope that in the next excavation seasons the archive of the ancient kings of Hazor will be found.

Israelite Hazor
The time of the destruction of Canaanite Hazor is disputed among scholars. Yadin determined the time of its conquest to 1250 BCE, the beginning of the Israeli settlement corresponding to the conquests of Joshua, while Prof. Yohanan Aharoni delays the occupation to the time of the settlement of the tribes according to the Book of Judges, about a century later. After the Israeli occupation, the lower Canaanite city was abandoned and no longer inhabited. According to Ben-Tor, the massive burnt layer (dated to the end of the Late Bronze Age) confirms the scripture "Only all the cities, standing on the hill, did not burn, Israel: I burned Hazor alone, Joshua burned" (Joshua 11:13). The construction of Hazor as a large Israeli city was attributed by Yadin to King Solomon in the 10th century BCE, alongside the cities of Gezer and Megiddo which bear similar architectural characteristics. The Ben-Tor excavations might confirm Yadin's conclusions. This city included residential buildings, warehouses, fortifications and a gate similar to the gates at Megiddo and Gezer. According to Dr. Doron Ben-Ami, a member of the Hazor excavation expedition, there are few findings from the Iron Age 1 (12th-11th centuries BCE) at the site and they mainly include dozens of pits that were excavated in the ruins of the Canaanite city. The excavations also revealed a large water plant intended to supply water during a siege and its construction was attributed to King Ahab of Israel.

Biblical Hiking map

sources

Aviram, Y. Gitin, S. Mazar, p. faithful, n. Zuckerman, S. Stern A. (Editors) 2011. The Land of Israel, studies in the knowledge of the land and its antiquities. Sefer Amnon Ben Tor. Society for the Study of the Land of Israel and its Antiquities. Volume Thirty: 1-14, 59-73, 195-199, 328-342.

Ben-Tor, A. Rubiato, M. 1996. The renewed excavations at Tel Hazor. antiquity. Issue 1 (111): 2-18.

Ben-Ami, d. 2011. Hazor at the beginning of the Iron Age. antiquity. Issue 143: 24-27.

Sandhus, d. 2011. Hazor in the 9th-8th centuries BC. antiquity. Issue 143: 28-33.

Ben-Tor, A. 2004. Hazor and Chronology. Ägypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant. Vol. 14: pp. 45-67.

Tel Dan (Arabic "Tel El Kadi" - "The Judge's Hill") sits in the Hula Valley at the foot of Mount Hermon, about 200 m above sea level. Tel Dan’s elliptical shape dominates its surroundings from a height of about 18 m, thanks to a steep earthen embankment from the second millennium BCE. The site was identified by Edward Robinson in 1852 as the biblical city of Dan and was excavated by Dr. Avraham Biran from 1964-1989. The digs were conducted first by the Department of Antiquities and Museums and later the Glueck Institute for Biblical Archeology of the Hebrew Union College. The mound was settled starting from the Ceramic Neolithic period and intermittently until later periods. During the Early and Middle Bronze Age there was a central city called "Laish" at the site, which was called "Dan" after it was conquered by the tribe of Dan during the settlement period. Among the main finds at the site: an Aramaic inscription that mentions the House of David, a large ritual center from the Iron Age that was in use until the Hellenistic period; a decorated clay plaque known as the "Dancer of Dan"; impressive fortifications and an elaborate gatehouse.

Historical and biblical references to the city of Dan

The city first appears under the name "Laish" in the 18^th c. BCE Egyptian execration texts, the archive of Mari from the same period, and the description of Pharaoh Thutmose III’s military campaign in the 15th c. BCE. The Bible says that after it was conquered by the tribe of Dan its name was changed: "And the name of the city was called Dan... but Laish was the name of the city for the first time" (Judges 18:9). The city of Dan is mentioned in the census conducted by King David (1 Chronicles 22:2). During the reign of Jeroboam, King of Israel, it became a ritual center where a golden calf was placed (1 Kings 12:29) which caused the prophet Amos to cry out to the people of Israel that they were worshiping "the God of Dan" (Amos 8:15).

The ancient times at Dan

The earliest findings discovered in the mound date to the Ceramic Neolithic period (fifth millennium BCE). Abandoned for almost a thousand years, Dan became a significant city called "Laish" in the Early Bronze Age 2-3 (30^th-25^th c. BCE). According to Biran, the city spread over about 200 dunams and was probably the largest in the region. This city ceased to exist around 2,400 BCE, for no known reason.

The fortified Canaanite city "Laish"

The site was renewed in the Middle Bronze Age 2a (20th-19th c. BCE) when a large earthen embankment was constructed, surrounding the settlement and making an elliptical shape that is still visible today. A huge well-preserved gatehouse was found nearby, which excavators called "Abraham's Gate" and dated to the 18th century BCE. The city grew during the Late Bronze Age (15th-13th centuries BCE). The "Mycenaean tomb", associated with this period, contained many expensive burial offerings, most of which were imported, testifying to international commercial relations. Another interesting find was a clay plate depicting a man playing and raising his leg in a dance movement, called "the dancer from Dan."

The city of Dan in the Biblical period

According to Biran, the city of Laish was conquered in 1200 BCE. The evidence from the 12th century BCE point to a sharp change in the material culture. Deep silo pits and only local ceramic finds, mainly storage vessels, were discovered from this phase. The destruction layer found in the mound dates to the middle of the 11th century BCE, and some believe that it belongs to the Philistine occupation, after which the settlement was rebuilt. Several blacksmiths' forges point to Dan’s role as a metal factory city in the 10th century BCE. The Bible describes the transformation of Dan into an important administrative and ritual center in the Kingdom of Israel. Biran excavated a sacred complex with many ritual objects including a plastered device that might have been used for the water mixing ceremony in the 10^th-9^th c. BCE. Some of the finds indicate a close relationship between Phoenician Tyre and Dan.

Dan during the Northern Kingdom of Israel and Aram-Damascus

Dan continued to serve as a ritual center during the days of King Ahab of Israel. From the period between the 9^th-8^th c. BCE, large platforms made of ashlar stones, impressive fortifications, an elaborate gatehouse, and a unique structure known as the eaves house were built. In the early 8th c. BCE, the city of Dan prospered thanks to the defeat of the Arameans by the Assyrian kingdom, among other reasons. The ritual center in Dan grew and expanded in the days of Jeroboam II (785 BCE), and new altars and pyres were constructed. Excavators in 1993 found an inscription near ​​the Israeli gate. The victory inscription (or Tel Dan Stele), dated between the 9^th-8^th c. BCE, was written on a stone in Aramaic and is interpreted as archaeological evidence for the existence of a "House of David". The inscription was probably placed by the Arameans under King Hazael, and after Dan returned to the rule of Israel, it was torn down and used to build the new gate.

Under the rule of the empires and after

Tel Dan was occupied by the Assyrians in 732-733 BCE, after which the ritual complex was still in use - perhaps by the population that the Assyrians brought to the city. Even after the decline of the city during the Babylonian occupation (590 BCE), the ritual complex survived. It was still used during the Persian period when Dan belonged to the "Abar-Nahara” satrapy. The cult complex expanded in the Hellenistic period, a time when a massive immigration to Dan might have occurred. During the excavations in 1976, an early 2^nd c. BCE bilingual inscription (Greek and Aramaic) was found in the ritual complex, and describes a Greek named Zoilos who made a vow "to God who is in Dan." In the Roman period, the city was almost completely abandoned. Scant remains of a settlement were found in the southern area, possibly pointing to the "village of Dan" mentioned by Eusebius of Caesarea. Coins were also found, the last of which belonged to the emperor Honoitus (393-408 CE).

sources

Ilan, d. 2018. The "Tower" temple from the Middle Bronze Age in Tel Dan. Book by Lawrence A. Staiger. The Land of Israel: Studies in the Knowledge of the Land and its Antiquities. pp. 25-37. Byrne, A. 1992. 25 years of excavations at Tel Dan. Society for the Investigation of the Land of Israel and its Antiquities. Published by the united kibbutz. Tel Aviv. Greer, J. 2013. Dinner at Dan: Biblical and Archaeological Evidence for Sacred Feasts at Iron Age II Tel Dan and Their Significance. Brill. Boston.

Biblical Hiking map

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Megiddo began to dominate the surrounding countryside in the 4th millennium B.C.E. (ca. 3500) – at the dawn of urbanization in the Levant. Today its monumental architecture provides the most impressive evidence of the rise of the first cities in the region.

Megiddo was the site of epic battles that decided the fate of western Asia. When the Canaanite city-states revolted against 15th century B.C.E Pharaonic attempts at hegemony, it was at Megiddo that they assembled to do battle. The Egyptian army, led by Pharaoh Thutmose III, surprised the rebels by choosing the most dangerous route of attack – through the narrow ‘Aruna Pass. After routing the Canaanite forces and capturing rich booty, Thutmose III laid siege to the city for seven months. His decisive victory enabled him to incorporate Canaan as a province in the Empire of the New Kingdom. The description of the battle of Megiddo is the earliest account of a major war in antiquity.

The Bible lists the king of Megiddo among the Canaanite rulers defeated by Joshua in his conquest of the land (Josh. 12:21). According to I Kings (9:15), King Solomon built Megiddo together with Hazor and Gezer. At that time the city had become the center of a royal province of the United Monarchy. The Egyptian Pharaoh Shishak took Megiddo in the second half of the 10th century. His conquest of the city is affirmed both in his inscriptions at the Temple at Karnak and in a stele erected at the site. In the 9th and 8th centuries B.C.E., the rulers of the Northern Kingdom refitted the fortress even more elaborately than before. The palaces, water systems and fortifications of Israelite Megiddo are among the most elaborate Iron Age architectural remains unearthed in the Levant.

In 732 B.C.E., the Assyrian King Tiglath-pileser III took the region from the Northern Kingdom. In the following years Megiddo served as the capital of an Assyrian province. With the fall of the Assyrian empire the great religious reformer, King Josiah of Judah, was called to Megiddo to report to Pharaoh Necho of Egypt, who was on his way to assist the crumbling Assyrian army in its last-ditch efforts against the Babylonians. Josiah was slaughtered by Necho (II Kings 23:29). Recollection of this event, along with the memories of the great battles fought here, were probably the bases for the idea in the Book of Revelations (16:16) that Armageddon (the mound of Megiddo) would at the end of days be the site of the last battle between the forces of good and the forces of evil.

The Megiddo Expedition

Biblical Hiking map

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Tel Lachish is an archaeological site that covers some 124 dunams and lies near Moshav Lachish in the Shephelah region. The Arabic name of the site is Tell ed-Duweir. The tel was first identified as the location of the biblical city of Lachish by the American archaeologist William Albright in 1929. The identification was based mainly on the site’s geographical location, which matches biblical and Christian sources. This was later shown to be correct based on archaeological findings.

History of the Research

The tel was excavated by several expeditions over the years: the first excavations were conducted in the years 1932-1938 by British archaeologist James Starkey until his murder in 1938 during the Arab Revolt in British Mandate Palestine. In the years 1966 and 1968, the site was excavated in a reduced capacity by Yohanan Aharoni. From 1973-1994 the site was excavated in wide capacity by David Ussishkin. In 2013-2017, the site was excavated by a joint expedition from the Hebrew University and the Southern Adventist University, headed by Yosef Garfinkel and Michael Hasel. Since 2017 the tel is being excavated in a reduced capacity by a joint Israeli-Austrian expedition headed by Felix Höflmayer.

Early Lachish

From the Potter Neolithic era until the Early Bronze II period (6^th millennium-early 3^rd millennium BCE), the settlement at the site was small. From the Early Bronze III (2800-2500 BCE) the settlement expanded and may have even been fortified. Circa 2200 BCE the site was destroyed or abandoned and remained in this state until the Middle Bronze Age (beginning of the 2^nd millennium BCE), when it was resettled, until it was destroyed by fire around 1550 BCE. The site was rebuilt during the Late Bronze Ib (beginning of the 14^th century BCE) and remained active until the end of the 13^th century. Five letters from various kings of Lachish sent to the pharaoh were found among the ‘El-Amarna Letters.’ The city and its rulers are mentioned in other letters as well. Among the findings from this period are: a temple to the Canaanite goddess Elat and her Egyptian counterpart Hathor, which was built in a fosse that wrapped around the tel; a scarab belonging to Ramesses II; and Egyptian and Mycenean pottery vessels (the latter from Mycenae near the Aegean Sea).

The Canaanite and Judahite city of Lachish

During the Late Bronze IIIb (beginning of the 12^th c. BCE), a wealthy Canaanite city controlled by Egypt was located at the site. Among the findings of this era may be counted jewelry, scarabs, glass vessels, ivories, a number of Canaanite temples, a golden cultic plaque and more. The city was destroyed circa 1130 BCE, perhaps at the hands of the Sea Peoples, and in due time, became a Judahite city which was active during the Iron IIa-IIb period (early 10^th-end of 8^th c. BCE according to the higher chronology). During some of this era the city was fortified and included massive walls and a gate. It is possible that these fortifications were related to Rehoboam’s fortification plan (2 Chronicles 11:5-12). Findings from this period include a fortified palace, dozens of ‘LMLK’ jars and private jars, many ‘Shekel’ weights and more.

Lachish between the Assyrian campaign of Sennacherib and the Babylonian campaign of Nebuchadnezzar

The city was destroyed during Sennacherib’s conquest of Judah in 701 BCE. A testament to the destruction of Lachish is found on massive wall reliefs that decorated Sennacherib’s palace at Nineveh and describe the storming of the city. The Assyrian attack on Lachish is also hinted at in the Bible (2 Kings 18:14-19; Isaiah 36:2; 37:8; 2 Chronicles 32:9). Findings from the battle include arrowheads, spears, slingstones, pieces of armor, and more. During the Iron IIc (7^th c. BCE) the site was rebuilt as a fortified settlement. In that settlement strata the ‘Lachish Letters’ were found. These are a collection of ostraca that document activities of the Judahite soldiers stationed at Lachish and at nearby military bases. The city was destroyed again during Nebuchadnezzar’s conquest of Judah, in 588 or 586 BCE.

The site after the Babylonian destruction
At the beginning of the Persian period (end of the 6^th c. BCE), the site was settled once again and later on became a fortified administrative center. The site continued to exist through the Hellenistic period and in the Roman period, a small village existed at the site.

Sources:

D. Diringer, 'The Early Hebrew Weights Found at Lachish', PEQ 74 (1942), pp. 82-103

D. Ussishkin et al, The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachish (1973-1994) - Vol. I, Tel Aviv 2004

D. Ussishkin et al, The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachish (1973-1994) - Vol. IV, Tel Aviv 2004

3D

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background

Tel Arad is located about 8 km west of the city of Arad, between the Be'er Sheba valley and the Arad valley. The name "Arad" is mentioned in the Bible as the name of a Canaanite city in the eastern Negev, and in the list of cities of the Negev of Judah (with possible letters - "Adar"). This ancient name has been preserved throughout history, up to the present day. The results of the excavations in Arad and other sites in the Beer Sheba valley have greatly contributed to the understanding of the area and its history, and have made it one of the most researched areas in Israel. A conservation and reconstruction operation was carried out at the site, focusing on the Canaanite city and the Judean citadel.

The site was surveyed by Nelson Glueck (American School of Archaeology) and David Alon (Antiquities Authority) in the 1950s, and 18 seasons of excavation were conducted alternately between 1966-1984 by the Israel Exploration Society, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and the Israel Museum. Starting with the second season of excavations, work at the mound was conducted in two expeditions operating simultaneously - one focused on the Canaanite city, led by the late Prof. Ruth Amiran, and the other on the citadel, led by the late Prof. Yohanan Aharoni, who died in 1976 and did not fully publish his findings.

The Canaanite city

The earliest layer on the site refers to the "Beer Sheba culture" that existed in the Chalcolithic period (4500-3500 BCE), and the main finds are silos and foundations for temporary buildings. In the Early Bronze Age I (around 3200 BCE), a settlement developed that consisted of dwellings in natural caves and became a large and well-planned city which was destroyed and abandoned at the end of the Early Bronze Age II (2650 BCE). An important find from this period is Serach Naramer (the first ruler of united Egypt), which indicates trade between Egypt and the south of the Land of Israel at that time. The Canaanite city was characterized by the "Aredite house" model, which has a similar structure throughout the city. In addition, a central water reservoir was found, which was used by the residents of the site even in the later periods.

Citadel Hill

The citadel mound, located in the northeastern part of the site, developed on the ruins of the Canaanite city. 12 settlement layers have been identified at the tel, which include the remains of six citadels that were built one on top of the other. The researchers identified the division between layers using the height of the floor level in each layer. There is a height difference of about 2 m between the earliest and the latest layer on the citadel mound. The citadel was inhabited almost continuously from the 11th century BCE, until the destruction of the Kingdom of Judah in 586 BCE. In the 10th century BCE, a citadel was built there with a closing wall (consisting of rooms adjacent to each other). This citadel was destroyed at the end of the 10th century (possibly as part of a campaign launched in 924 BCE). The citadel that was built immediately after, under the rule of the Kingdom of Judah, had a full and wide wall, and included a complex defense system (like watchtowers), residential complexes, archives, food and equipment warehouses, a complex water system and a temple.

The temple in Arad existed between the 8th and 9th centuries BCE and underwent several architectural changes throughout the years of its existence. An area with an altar and a covered structure that included a hall and a shrine was found in the vicinity of the temple. Inside the shrine a tombstone and 2 incense altars were found. On top of the altars were kept remains of material burnt organic matter. Following residue analysis tests (among other things), cannabis and animal fat were found in the remains, which shed light on the Jewish worship at that time. The altars were found covered and this is probably evidence of the cancellation of the worship in the building at the end of the 8th century BCE, possibly as part of the ritual reform of King Hezekiah.

In one of the burnt rooms at the site, an archive was discovered containing seals, administrative inscriptions and ostraca, which mention the name of one of the commanders of the citadel in the 7th-6th centuries BCE - Elishiv bin Ashiyahu. This archive is a testimony to the meticulous and professional administration in the Kingdom of Judah. Inscriptions referring to historical events were found in it. In addition, the study of the text reveals the set of roads, the identification of names and the administrative structure.

The citadel mound is rich in objects and products that testify to rich and developed trade relations. For example - trees from Lebanon, vessels from the Galilee and the Golan, a Galilee seal and a bronze statue with Assyrian influence. In addition, in a number of inscriptions, mentions of sects (Greeks? Cypriots?) and theophoric names were found that mention the Edomite god "Kos." An inscription was also found that was used in Hieratic (Egyptian) letters.

After the destruction of Judah

The site continued to serve as a regional administrative center responsible for trade, provision of supplies and protection of caravans even after the period of the Kingdom of Judah. The empires and kingdoms that ruled the land used it for this role also in the Persian period, as well as in the Hellenistic, early Roman and early Arab periods. In later times it was used as a burial site for Bedouins.

Sources:

Eran Arie, Baruch Rosen & Dvory Namdar (2020) Cannabis and Frankincense at the Judahite Shrine of Arad, Tel Aviv, 47:1, pp. 5-28.

Herzog, Z. (1997). Arad: the citadel mound in Arad. Published by the united kibbutz.

Amiran, R., Ilan, A., Saban, M. (1997). Arad: Canaanite Arad - a gateway city to the desert. Published by the united kibbutz.

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Azekah is a biblical city identified with Tell Zakarîya, not far from Beth Shemesh. The tel is 45 dunams in size and was first identified by the geographer Rabbi Yehosef Schwartz in 1845 in his book “Tevuot Ha’aretz”. The identification was based on the geographical location fitting the biblical description and on the partial preservation of the name ‘Azekah’ in the name ‘Azakariya’, the name of the tel as it was known by Schwartz. This proposal was not accepted by all scholars, and some suggested identifying the site with biblical Socoh. In 1924 the American archaeologist William Albright opined that Tell Zakarîya should, indeed, be identified with Azekah, and his view has since been accepted by scholars.

History of the Excavations

The tel was first excavated by the American archaeologist Frederick Bliss together with the Scottish archaeologist Robert Macalister in the years 1898-1899. Since 2012 the tel is being excavated by a joint expedition from Tel Aviv University and Heidelberg University, led by Oded Lipschits and Manfred Oeming. The Ottoman-era excavation permits were given on the condition that at the end of the excavation the areas would be covered once again, and so the research of the joint expedition includes restoring and re-analyzing the findings from the Bliss-Macalister expedition.

A Canaanite city in the Bronze Age

The site was first settled in the Early Bronze III period (2800-2500 BCE) and remained continuously active until the Late Bronze age (1550-1130 BCE). During the Late Bronze age, Azekah was a magnificent Canaanite city indirectly controlled by Egypt. Findings from this period include a number of scarabs, pottery vessels decorated with animal designs, Egyptian amulets, Egyptian blue and a massive structure where four people were found to have been buried alive during the destruction of the city. This destruction occurred sometime during the second half of the 12^th century BCE. Post-destruction, Azekah remained abandoned for the next 200 years.

Azkah in the Iron Age until its destruction during Sennacherib's campaign

During the Iron IIA period (10^th century BCE) a small rural settlement was built on the site. Findings from this era include a house that may belong to the ‘pillared house’ type, pottery vessels and a house-foundation offering (a bowl and a candle buried beneath the entrance of the house). These findings reveal that the people who lived at the site during this period had a significant affinity to the Canaanite culture that controlled the site during the Bronze Age. It is not known when Azekah was annexed into the Judahite Kingdom, but it occurred by the end of the 8^th century BCE. By then, ‘LMLK’ jars, statuettes, loom weights and a formation of outer walls, possibly connected to a new fortification system or to an enemy siege system, appeared at the site. An Assyrian inscription from the time of Sennacherib mentioning Azekah testifies that the city was conquered and destroyed during his conquest of the Land of Judah, in 701 BCE.

Azkah after the destruction of Sennacherib

The settlement on the site was rebuilt during the Iron IIC period (7^th-early 6^th centuries BCE) in a small capacity. Findings from this period include a citadel that stood at the top of the tel and 14 stamped vessel handles. According to the ‘Lachish Letters’, it seems that during this era Azekah was part of a system of Judahite forts which included Lachish and another, smaller unknown fort. Azekah is mentioned in Letter No. 4, which says: “May the LORD cause my lord to hear […] And may (my lord) be apprised that we are watching for the fire signals of Lachish according to all the signs which my lord has given, because we cannot see Azekah.” This letter was sent by Hoshayahu, the commander of the unknown fort, to Ya’ush, the commander of the citadel at Lachish. It is unknown whether this letter was a standard military procedure which announced that the soldiers of the fort depended upon the torches of Lachish, or whether this was an emergency report alerting that the torches of Azekah could no longer be seen because the citadel there had been destroyed by the Babylonians.

Azekah in the Babylonian, Persian, Hellenistic and Roman Periods

During the Babylonian period (the first half of the 6^th century BCE) the site became even smaller. It only grew into a large village during the late Persian period (4^th-3^rd centuries BCE). This village was probably part of the Yehud Province. Among the findings from this period may be counted a number of structures, a kiln, and pottery vessels typical of the Yehud Province. The site was abandoned around the end of the 3^rd century BCE and resettled during the 2^nd century BCE, until it was abandoned once again after the Bar Kokhba Revolt.

Sources

F. J. Bliss and R. A. S. Macalister, Excavations in Palestine During the Years 1898-1900, London 1902

O. Lipschits et al, ‘Five Seasons of Excavations at Tel Azekah: Expectations, Findings and Surprises’, Qadmoniyot 156 (2018), pp. 84-99 [Hebrew]

O. Lipschits et al, ‘Tel Azekah - 2019’, Hadashot Hadashot Arkheologiyot 133 (2021) [published online at the ‘Hadashot Arkheologiyot’ website]

O. Lipschits et al, ‘The Last Days of Canaanite Azekah’, Biblical Archaeology Review, 45 (2019), pp. 32-38; 70

Y. Schwartz, Tevuot Ha’aretz (Which is part II of the Book Divrei Yosef), Jerusalem 1900 [Hebrew]

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Gath (also known as “Gath of the Philistines”) is a biblical Philistine city identified with Tel es-Safi (formerly the Arab village of es-Safi) near Kfar Menachem in the Shephelah region. The site covers an area of some 40-50 hectares. The identification of Tel es-Safi with Gath was first proposed in the mid-19^th century by the Irish scholar Josaias Porter, but over the course of the 20^th century other proposals were put forward for the location of Gath, such as Tel Erani and Ra’s Abu Hamid.

History of the Research

Thus far the site has been excavated by two expeditions: In 1899 by an expedition from the PEF led by the American archaeologist Frederick Bliss and the Irish archaeologist Robert Macalister, and in the years 1996-2021 (except for 2003) by an expedition led by Aren Maeir of Bar-Ilan University. Maeir continues to hold localized excavations around the tel. It should be noted that over the course of the 50s and 60s Moshe Dayan held several illegal excavations at the site. Selected findings from his excavations are on display at the museum erected in his home.

The Site in the Early, Intermediate and Middle Bronze Ages

The site was only minimally active in prehistoric times. Significant activity began in the Early Bronze Age (3500-2500 BCE), and circa the end of the Early Bronze III period (2900-2500 BCE) the acropolis of the tel was already vast and fortified. Other than impressive buildings, small artifacts were also uncovered such as an ivory signet ring with a lion carving. In the Intermediate Bronze Age (2500-2000 BCE) the settlement at the site greatly dwindled in size and slowly expanded once more over the course of the Middle Bronze Age (2000-1500 BCE).

The Site in the Late Bronze Age

In the Late Bronze Age (1500-1200 BCE) the site became a regional center, as reflected in a few mentions of Gath in the El-Amarna Letters. It seems likely that Abdi-Ashirta, one of the leaders of the ‘Apiru that ebelled against the Egyptian control of Canaan, was the son of Shuwardata, king of Gath. Various findings from the site also demonstrate the importance of the site during that period, including: Two Egyptian inscriptions, Cypriot and Aegean pottery, and an Egyptian governor’s house.

The Site in the Iron Age

In the transition period from the Late Bronze Age to the Iron I period (end of the 13^th century-mid-12^th century BCE) the Canaanite material culture at Gath was largely replaced by the Philistine material culture which reflects the Philistine conquest of Tel es-Safi and other sites in the area which will eventually be known as “Land of the Philistines”. In the Iron I (12^th-11^th centuries BCE) the site was one of the two most important Philistine sites, along with Tel Miqne (Ekron). At the onset of the period only the upper city was inhabited, but over the course of the period the settlement was expanded to the lower city, and at its height the city covered an area of some 40-50 hectares. Findings from this period include decorated Philistine pottery, a temple and other structures. In the Iron IIa (1000-950 BCE) metal, oil and bone tools industries were developed at the site. To this period are ascribed a few ostraca found written in a Indo-European language with Semite letters. Other than another temple that was discovered, several cultic objects were also found such as figurines, zoomorphic vessels and horned altars. In 830 BCE Hazael king of Aram laid siege upon the city with a massive siege system uncovered during excavations, and finally conquered the city and destroyed it.

The Site in Later Periods

After the Aramean destruction, the site partially rebuilt and may have been controlled by Ashdod. In the middle of the 8^th century BCE or at its end Gath came to be controlled by the Kingdom of Judah, which is reflected in Judahite pillared houses and Judahite pottery, including ‘LMLK’ jar handles. It is unknown whether the site was active during the Babylonian period (end of the 7^th-mid-6th centuries BCE). The site was resettled in the Persian period (mid-6^th century-332 BCE). From the Hellenistic period and onwards activity at the site dwindled dramatically.

Bibliography

A. M. Maeir and others, ‘The Late Bronze Age at Tell es-Safi/Gath and the Site’s Role in Southwestern Canaan’, in: A. M. Maeir and others (eds.), The Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages of Southern Canaan, Berlin and Boston 2019, pp. 1-18.

A. M. Maeir and others, ‘The Tell es-Sâfi/Gath Archaeological Project’, Near Eastern Archaeology 80 (2017), pp. 212-301 and Near Eastern Archeology 81 (2018), pp. 1-93.

A. M. Maeir and others, Tell es-Safi/Gath I: The 1996-2005 Seasons, Munich 2012.

The Tell es-Safi/Gath Archaeological Project Official