The Byzantine period began in the 4th century AD and concluded in the 7th century AD. The transition from the Roman era to the Byzantine era is marked by two events. First, Emperor Constantine’s reign (306-337 AD), who embraced Christianity and established it as the official religion of the Roman Empire. Second, the division of the Roman Empire in 395 AD into the Western Empire and the Eastern Empire. The latter became known as the “Byzantine Empire.” The name “Byzantine” originates from the Greek city of “Byzantion.” Constantinople, the capital of the empire (named after Emperor Constantine), was built on Byzantion’s ruins. Lasting for approximately a millennium, the empire ruled over southern Europe, the Middle East, and Egypt. However, the Byzantine period in the Levant concluded with the Arab conquest of Jerusalem in 634 AD.
The Byzantine Empire aimed to oversee the holy sites mentioned in the Old and New Testaments. They suppressed dissent from Jewish and Samaritan communities. Christianity constituted the majority religion during this era, peaking at around 2.5 million adherents (compared to approximately 200 thousand Jews). Notably, churches and monasteries were constructed in significant locations such as Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, Capernaum, and Mount Tabor. These attracted pilgrims from across the Christian world who sought to worship and honor the relics of saints. Moreover, Byzantine emperors undertook the renovation and expansion of the Temple Mount and erected the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. This period was marked by political, religious, and cultural transformations, as well as conflicts, uprisings, and invasions. It witnessed the evolution of Christianity, literature, and theology alongside the emergence of various sects and religious doctrines.
Jews, Samaritans and Pagans
During the Byzantine period, the Jewish and Samaritan communities, once relatively autonomous and prosperous under Roman rule, faced oppression and decline. Byzantine emperors implemented laws restricting the rights and liberties of Jews and Samaritans. These included bans on holding public office, military service, land ownership, circumcision, holiday observance, and entry into Jerusalem. Despite several rebellions—such as those in 484 AD, 529 AD, and 614 AD—against Byzantine oppression, these communities were brutally suppressed by imperial forces. For instance, the Gallus Rebellion of 351 AD, an attempted Jewish uprising, resulted in the destruction of Beit Sha’arim and the imposition of a military regime in the region.
Meanwhile, archaeological excavations from the same period reveal religious diversity and syncretism. While Christianity predominated, the findings suggest a coexistence of various religious traditions, including Judaism, Samaritanism, and paganism. Synagogues dating to the Byzantine era, like those discovered in Beit Alfa and Capernaum, feature intricate mosaic floors adorned with biblical scenes and Jewish symbols. This era also witnessed a surge in the dissemination of Jewish mysticism and rabbinic literature, alongside the compilation of the Jerusalem Talmud and the Midrash of the Amoraim.
The Samaritan community, centred around Mount Gerizim, thrived throughout the Byzantine period. Excavations conducted in Samaritan synagogues and residences yield valuable insights into their religious practices and cultural identity. Additionally, archaeological findings suggest the persistence of pagan worship and rituals in rural areas, with temples dedicated to deities like Dionysus and Pan, indicating the coexistence of pre-Christian religious traditions alongside the spread of Christianity.
Archaeology, economy and trade
Numerous Byzantine archaeological sites dot the landscape of Israel, showcasing layers of Byzantine settlement, churches, and monasteries. Over the years, excavations have unveiled significant discoveries, including a massive wine factory in Yavne producing approximately 2 million liters annually. Churches abound in regions like the Negev, Judean lowlands, northern areas, and along the coastlines. These excavations have unearthed a diverse array of artifacts—pottery, coins, lamps, glassware, metals, and bones—illuminating the rich tapestry of daily life, trade, and economy during this era. Notable sites include Caesarea, Schytopolis (Beit Shean), and Sepphoris (Tzipori).
Throughout the Byzantine period, trade networks thrived and expanded across the Land of Israel. Excavations in port cities like Acre and Ashkelon have uncovered evidence of maritime trade routes linking the Mediterranean world, the Arabian Peninsula and Africa. Discoveries of typical pottery, glassware, and coins at these sites attest to the region’s integration into the broader economic sphere under Byzantine influence. Furthermore, agricultural prosperity flourished with innovations such as terraced agriculture and irrigation systems, fostering the development of urban hubs and rural settlements. Olive oil, wine, and grain production emerged as vital components of the region’s economy, supported by archaeological remnants and historical records.
External threats
Amidst the Byzantine period, the region confronted repeated threats and invasions from external adversaries, including the Sasanian Persians, Arab tribes, and Turks. In 614, the Persians successfully seized control of the region, resulting in the destruction of numerous churches and monasteries, the massacre of thousands of Christians, and the temporary reinstatement of Jewish governance in Jerusalem. Although the Byzantine Empire reclaimed the territory in 629 AD, its local dominion endured only for a brief period until the advent of Islam and the Arab conquest of the Land of Israel in 634 AD. (The Byzantine Empire persisted elsewhere until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD.)
In summary, the Byzantine era stands as one of the most pivotal and influential periods in the history of the Land of Israel. It witnessed profound religious and cultural shifts, leading to an unparalleled demographic zenith that remained unmatched until the establishment of the State of Israel. This period marks the transformation of the Levant into a revered holy land and the inception of Christian pilgrimage. Moreover, it holds significance for Judaism, notably with the activity of the Amorites. Historically, the conclusion of the Byzantine period signifies the transition from antiquity to the onset of the Middle Ages.